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Korean Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 65

Baekdong Yeonjukjang 

Pipe with blackish copper patterns

Korean tobacco pipes usually consist of mouthpiece, long bamboo stem, and pipe bowl. The mouthpiece and bowl required elaborate skill and calculation. It seems natural that bamboo became an essential component of pipes, because bamboo is one of the Four Gentlemen in the classic ink paintings of literati artists. Bamboo symbolized the faithfulness and uprightness a scholar was expected to have.

Pipes are classified by the material of the mouthpiece and bowl. In luxury pipes, these are of gold or silver. White brass pipes were also compatible with a dignified life. Korean men in traditional society spent freely on only a few items, a good pipe being one of them. The bam-boo stems were actually shorter than the ones we see today. Tobacco pipes with long, slender stems 30-50cm in length, called jangjuk, became fashionable as they inspired respect and lent authority. Thus the richer and the higher ranking functionaries would smoke precious long-stem pipes, especially at banquets and on other special occasions. Some genre paintings showed up class men smoking long-stem gold,silver, blackish copper, and white brass pipe in a haughty man-net Another reason for male g long stems was that the smoke was weakened as it passed through the long passage and therefore became less harmful. For an elderly nobleman, a long-stem pipe was like a conductors baton, with which he directed servants, instructed young people, or expressed his anger by tapping the bowl in an ash tray.

Heated over the stove before forging

References to pipes first appeared in the 14th century and became common in the 15th century. However, the clearest evidence indicates that tobacco was first imported from Japan in 1618, the 10th year of King Gwanghae of the Joseon Dynasty. It is also recorded that when the Qing army approached the border in King Injo’s 11th year (1633), it gave the border envoy Chun Sin-sa a tobacco plant and pipe. At this time, tobacco smoking was already prevalent among the upper class. Imwon Simyukji (Book of Sixteen Forest Products), written by Seo Yu-gu, mentions white brass pipes. Extravagant men spend a hundred to three hundred coins to get blackish copper or white brass pipes adorned with gold and silver inlay, which seems a great waste of money. This shows how much importance Korean gentlemen gave to having fashionable pipes. Pipes were soon produced all over the country, in Anseong, Namwon, Imsil, Sintaein, Gimcheon, Ulsan, and Masan. The Imsil and Anseong areas still produce classic tobacco pipes.

Connecting a pipe bowl with a bamboo stem

In addition to the gold, silver, and white brass mentioned above, favorite materials for the mouthpieces and bowls of pipes were blackish copper and an alloy of gold and silver, all of which could have inlaid designs. Sometimes amber, jade, or ceramics were used. White brass is an alloy which typically is 58% copper, 37% nickel, and 5% zinc. The more nickel it contains, the whiter the color. Classy pipes would have blackish copper, silver, red copper, gold, and silver inlays. Some were decorated with cloisonné.

To make a white brass pipe, the alloy was first made in a melting pot, then poured into a grooved iron plate to m e several sticks. Each stick was then forged in o a sheet as thin as 1mm, cut to the proper length for one component, then tempered into an en thinner sheet, bent and rolled into shape, d soldered at the joint with yellow brass. The joint was smoothened. Each piece was then polished with a polishing bow.

The joints at both ends of the stem were decorated. The Chinese characters for longevity, fortune, and double-happiness, pine trees and cranes, the taegeuk symbol, vignettes, lightning patterns, and the like were inlaid in contrasting color, for instance a white inlay against a dark background or vice versa.

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Buddhism, Confucian & Folk beliefs

Shaman's Mirror

It is not easy to simply define the thoughts that ruled the spiritual world of the Koreans in pre-modern times. It is because various thoughts had different implications and functions depending on the times, circumstances, social class or gender, and whether in the private or public realms. But it is certain that Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism combined to form the spiritual world of Koreans, building on the founda-tion of their folk beliefs. Before Christianity and the Eastern Learning (Donghak), a homegrown system of religious thought, spread widely, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism and native religious beliefs represented the thoughts of Koreans.

Worship of Heaven

With the sun, the moon and stars under its command, bringing thunder and lightning, rain or drought, Heaven was an omnipotent and sacred power that ruled over all creation. Therefore, rulers held sacrifices and worship at the altar for Heaven to give thanks for harvests and pray for peace on behalf of their nation.  In time, the rites for the worship of heaven became duties of professional shamans. But ancient kings continued to proclaim their mandate from Heaven through foundation myths. Lofty mountains, tall trees or birds flying in the sky served as mysterious messengers in their communion with Heaven.

Buddhism and the Royal Family

Buddhism was introduced to all of the Three Kingdoms between the fourth and the sixth centuries. Buddhist teachings, based on lofty philosophical theories, were accepted by their rulers as a very useful system of thought for the nation building process. From the Three Kingdoms to Unified Silla through Goryeo, the rulers of successive dynasties had deep faith in the Buddha and extended huge support to Buddhist circles. Thus they enhanced their authority and contributed to national prosperity. During the Goryeo period, in particular, many princes became monks and temples were built around the capital city, Gaegyeong. Even under Joseon which adopted anti-Buddhist policies, the royal family followed Buddhism and supported temples.

Venerable Monks

Reliquary set

Buddhism continued to flourish over centuries and achieved a splendid cultural flowering in Korea, thanks to the devout faith and support from all social strata from kings to nobility and com-moners. Without many prominent monks, Korean Buddhism and Buddhist culture would not have been able to make such laudable accomplishments.

Korea produced many great monks who devoted themselves to studying the Buddha’s teachings to leave clear footprints in the world history of Buddhist philosophy, or struggled to achieve unity and reform of the Buddhist world with their profound theoretical depth and noble character. There were also renowned monks who participated in secular politics or diplomatic negotiations, or fought against foreign invaders.

Devotion to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

Since a pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were introduced during the Three Kingdoms pe-riod, Koreans devotedly worshiped them and prayed to them just as they had long done toward Heaven, mountain spirits, or the Seven Stars. They expressed their devout faith through various acts such as painting or sculpting images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, building pagodas, casting bells, hand-copying sutras, or carving the printing blocks for Tripitaka, the compendium of Buddha’s teachings and their explanations.

Confucian studies

Confucian texts on bamboo slips and case

Confucian teachings were spread through academic study of Confucian philosophy by generations of scholars. But it was Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty in China in the 12th century who propounded metaphysical theories of social harmony and proper personal conduct. Neo-Confucianism was introduced in Korea in the late 13th century and was fully expounded by two prominent scholars, Yi Hwang and Yi I, in the 16th century. The two sage scholars established the Korean school of Neo-Confucian philosophy and laid a solid academic foundation for many scholars of later generations to explore questions regarding human nature and moral decorum. This constant scholarly pursuit of moral values sustained the Joseon Dynasty over five centuries.

Confucian Scholars

Joseon scholars played significant roles in laying the ethical foundation of the dynasty based on Confucian moral teachings and etiquette. They studied history and disseminated Confucian teachings. They were the intellectual elite who put their knowl-edge into practice to educate people.

Confucianism and Public Education

Confucian teachings were most faithfully practiced under the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. In order to learn to govern properly, the Joseon kings listened to lectures on Confucian philosophy and history. Public schools (hyanggyo) were established in every village across the country, while private academies (seowon) engaged in education at higher levels and conducted rituals for venerating Confucian sages. As intellectual leaders of local communities, Confucian scholars distributed village codes (hyangyak) for efficient self-governance infused with a spirit of basic justice for all and mutual assistance in times of need. Confucian moral values and etiquette were respected more extensively than ever during the latter part of the Joseon period, particularly the rites for coming of age, marriage, funeral and ancestral worship. The excessively stern moral standards, however, meant that women had little freedom in their everyday lives.

Daoism and Folk Beliefs

Daoism was introduced from China during the Three Kingdoms period and easily found common ground in Korean native beliefs. Daoism flourished nationwide during the Goryeo period. In the 16th century mid-Joseon period, however, Daoist rituals were abolished under pressure from Confucian scholars. They barely survived as a means for physical and mental cultivation of individuals or medical skills.

Long before the introduction of Daoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, Koreans had believed that deities resided in the elements of nature such as the sun, the moon, the Seven Stars of the Great Bear, mountains, trees, birds and various animals. These folk beliefs, which were primitive in the sense they were mainly concerned about invoking blessings, were deeply rooted in the everyday lives of Koreans and were enriched through contacts with Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism. Particularly, shamanism and the ritual performances of professional shamans played a prominent role in the spiritual life of the people.

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Korea Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 60

Jangdo - Korean traditions ornamental knives

Women wore small ornamental knives, jangdo, as part of macrame pendants from their vest strings, to protect their honor. Just like ceremonial swords and daggers, jangdo also had elaborate decoration on haft and sheath. But they looked somewhat warmer and friendlier than those glittering, icy-bladed weapons.

Early jangdo were discovered in tombs of the Three Kingdoms as ornamental accessories on gold and silver belts. The present term jangdo seems to have come into use in the Goryeo period. It is said that the wearing of decorative knives as pendants on the chest was introduced by the Mongols near the end of the Goryeo Dynasty. As Confucian thought emphasized female chastity, it was expected that women without men to protect them would kill themselves in a situation where it was threatened. When a woman got married, her mother gave her an ornamental knife as a symbol of womans virtue. Gradually, by the middle of the Joseon period, jangdo became luxurious trinkets and the tyrant Yeonsan ( 1494 —1506) forbade common people from wearing them. A special atelier was established for making ornamental knives and daggers for the royal household. Later on, private jangdo makers spread across the country and handed down the tradition.

Polishing a knife with a bowstring

Jangdo have a variety of designs and materials, according to use. Gyeongdo Japji, written by Yu Deuk-gong, a scholar of the Practical Learning school in the late 1700s, dealt with the seasonal customs of the capital region. It also noted popular materials for the hafts and sheaths of jangdo, which included gold, silver, bronze, ivory, coral, agate, amber, malachite, jade, tortoiseshell, shark skin, and rhinoceros, ox, and goat horn. Persimmon, jujube, ebony, and other woods were more prevalent among the common people. Jangdo were often named after the material used for the haft and sheath. The shape of the haft and sheath might be cylindrical, rectangular, hexagonal, or octagonal.

Jangdo blades were usually made of smelted iron. The process began with reforging hot iron, which was formed into a sleek shape and filed to make it smooth and sharp. The artisan engraved patterns or letters on the blade. Then the hardening process was repeated. The traditional hardening methods were to thrust the hot blade into thick mud, or cover it with clay and charcoal ash, or dip it into cold water, or cover it with soybean paste. It was then heated and again dipped into cold water or covered with clay. The largest jangdo are about 16cm in length with a 10cm blade, and the smaller kind about 10cm in length with a 5cm blade. Womens pendant knives are usually of the smaller kind.

Engraving letters on a blade

As jangdo became decorative ornaments for upper-class women, the designs on hafts and sheaths increased in sophistication. Jangdo knives are valued by the rarity of their material and the designs on their hafts and sheaths. Geo-metrical patterns are the popular kinds, especially those with inlaid mother-of-pearl and wire. White bronze inlaid with black bronze wire gives a pleasant contrast which goes well with Chinese characters. Dancheong painting and a sort of cloisonné in diverse colors allowed vivid depiction of floral patterns, birds, trees, and legendary animals. Just a simple piece of celadon-color jade seems to ennoble a graceful-looking lady in a white gossamer dress in summer.

Moral values and the meaning of womens chastity have changed since the time of Confucian society. Today no woman would kill herself with jangdo knife or even carry one around in her bosom. In a sense, though, it was the counter-part of self-protection devices of today like the gas gun for warding off an attacker on a dark street corner in the concrete jungle. Despite their fierce origins, jangdo knives are now no longer literally symbols of womens virtues but just decorative objects in a showcase. Sometimes they remind us of the chastity or of the shackled lives of women in past days.

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Social and Economic Life

Identification tag of official

An extensive study of changes in all areas of people’s lives is needed to gain a correct understanding of Korean history and culture. Substantial efforts have been made in recent years to shed light on the life of ancient Koreans. Consequently, there is great interest in ancient social institutions and economic activities as well as the general history of living conditions. Ancient documents and artifacts can provide useful in-sights for these subjects.

Census Records

Census taking and tax levying have been time-honored functions of the state. Joseon had a family registration system similar to that of today. The family registers were renewed once every three years to update information about households and the general population.

Identification Tags

Horse tags

Various identification tags were used in traditional society. Among representative tags were horse tags (mapae) carried by traveling officials in order to be able to change horses at public stations, and citizen identification tags (hopae) issued to all men at the age of 16 or more.

Commercial Transactions

Domestic commerce remained lackluster across the country during the early Joseon period. With the society in general undergoing rapid changes, however, commercial transactions also gained vitality in the latter part of the dynasty. Many markets emerged in rural areas and took root as local hubs for exchange of merchandise beyond simple bartering.

Merchants used various tools including abacuses and scales. Many of these objects have been passed down until today.

Pack and Back Peddlers

The pack and back peddlers, or bobusang, were professional merchants who acted as intermediaries between producers and consumers on regular market days. They traveled from one region to another, mostly within a day’s walking distance, promoting intra-regional trade.

Currency and Measuring Instruments

Haedong Tongbo coins

Currency and measuring instruments were indispensable for commercial transactions. Various types of currency were continuously issued, circulated and then abandoned during the Three Kingdoms period. Until the Goryeo period, however, various commodities served as media of exchange and it was not until the Joseon period that metal coins were actively minted and used.

Measuring instruments needed to be standardized for smoother transactions and considerable efforts were made toward the purpose, especially under the reign of King Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty. But the measuring tools differed greatly from one region to another, or even from one user to another.

Agriculture and Taxation

Resident-registration

Since ancient times, the state encouraged agriculture, regarding it as the most important means of production. Soon after its inception the Joseon government introduced ambitious agricultural policies, reforming the land system and undertaking irrigation projects.

Farming technology made remarkable advances during the latter half of the Joseon period. Rice seedlings began to be transplanted from seed beds to paddies, which greatly contributed to bigger harvests. Foreign crops were introduced to help ease famine as well. Farming manuals and tax-related documents that have been handed down reflect the life of peasants struggling to produce food.

Articles for Everyday Life

Daily articles are useful for studying the everyday lives of ancient Koreans. Among notable objects passed down from the late Joseon period are medical equipment, smoking pipes and ashtrays, a variety of special coins and women’s personal ornaments. These artifacts suggest the hobbies and entertainments enjoyed by Koreans in bygone days, as well as their economic life and the ill-nesses they suffered from. They also give glimpses of ancient handicraft industries.

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The King and the State of Korea

Royal banquet in Joseon period

The Joseon Dynasty built Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine, and Sajik, the state altar for the gods of earth and crops, in the capital city. Here the Joseon kings held rites for the royal ancestors and guardian deities of the nation. The king dispatched officials to conduct rites held in the mountains and by rivers or the sea. When the king or other members of the royal family died the government held funeral rites in accordance with traditional custom and buried them in carefully built tombs. The king ruled through various offices in the capital and appointed local officials to collect taxes, govern, and defend the nation.

Royal Palaces

Joseon Crown prince investiture

The Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties built royal palaces of different scales in the capital as well as in provincial areas. The main palace (jeonggung or beopgung) was in the capital and those in provincial areas were called detached palaces (haenggung). Though they were small, the private residences of kings where they had lived before their accession (jamjeo) were sometimes promoted to palace status.

The royal palaces consisted of several areas with different functions: the main throne hall (jeongjeon) for major audiences of state; the offices of the king (pyeonjeon) and those of various government agencies (gwollae gaksa); the inner residential area (naejeon) for the members of the royal family and their attendants; and the rear garden (huwon) for leisure activities.

Rituals and Protocols

Temporary agencies (dogam) were formed to oversee major events in the royal household, such as weddings, funerals, investments, birthdays, ancestral rites, constructing palaces or making tombs or placenta chambers. When each event had been completed another temporary office was set up to compile a report on the entire procedures, called uigwe.

Royal Births and Placenta Chambers

Jars of Princess Myeongan Joseon

The birth of royal offspring was cause for major celebration. A few months to the expected date of confinement of a queen consort or a royal concubine, a special delivery room was installed at the office of court doctors and careful preparations were made to ensure a comfortable and solemn delivery. The birth of an heir to the throne was reported in a ceremony at the royal ancestral shrine and celebrated by courtiers.

It was traditionally believed in Korea that the placenta of a newborn baby needed to be carefully preserved to ensure the baby would grow up well and be happy. The placenta of a newborn prince or princess was put in a ceramic jar and interred in a stone chamber. The burial site was chosen in accordance with geomantic principles, mostly on a steep peak of a ridge stretching from a large mountain.

Education in the Royal Household

The reigning king was educated according to a carefully wrought plan by a special government agency named Gyeongyeoncheong. The office kept a vast collection of the best books and materials available to be referred to for state governance and a legion of renowned scholars and courtiers was mobilized to groom an able and respected ruler. The education of future monarchs also required utmost attention. The education of the heir apparent, princes and grandsons was respectively undertaken in the Boyangcheong (Hall of Nourishment), Sigangwon (Office of Royal Lectures) and Gangseowon (Hall of Speaking and Reading).

Royal Processions

King Jeongjo's trip to Hwaseong

The king left the palace or the capital for various activities such as holding rites at the royal ancestral shrine or the altar for the gods of earth and crops; paying homage at royal tombs or visiting detached palaces; inspecting the conditions of people’s lives; receiving Chinese emissaries; attending rites at Seonggyungwan, the National Confucian Academy, or Seonnongdan, the state altar for the god of agriculture; hunting; reviewing troops; or enjoying visits to hot springs.

The king traveled in the company of a large entourage escorted by honor guards. Members of the royal family as well as male and female court attendants, who normally had few chances to travel outside the palace, would also join the royal cortege.

Royal Weddings

The weddings of kings, princes or grandsons of the king were conducted by a temporary government agency named Garye Dogam, or the Office of Royal Weddings. The consorts of the reigning kings were selected through elaborate procedures under a royal edict temporarily forbidding all marriages in noble households throughout the country.

Funeral and Burial Rites

Burial site of King Sunjo Joseon

The deceased kings, queens, queen dowagers and queen grandmothers of Joseon kings were mourned and buried in state funerals, and crown princes and high-ranking courtiers in civil funerals.

The state funerals were overseen by three temporary agencies. They were the Office of Mortuary (Binjeon Dogam), which was responsible for enshrouding the corpse, operating the mortuary hall and preparing mourning garments; the Office of State Funeral (Gukjang Dogam), which prepared ritual equipment and food; and the Office of Royal Tomb (Salleung Dogam), which built a tomb and stone objects for the burial site. Funerals for kings and queen consorts were held over a period of three to five months, with the participation of some 10,000 people, including the new king, officials, soldiers and pallbearers.

Official Ranks and Titles

The Joseon government awarded official ranks and titles to members of the five classes of the ruling elite. They included civil officials, military officials, royal relatives, the king’s sons-in-law, and male and female palace attendants, including eunuchs and court ladies. The royal relatives referred to four generations of the descendants of princes born to the wives of kings and three generations of the descendants of those born to royal concubines. Low-ranking officials serving for various government agencies were given miscellaneous posts, and members of the local gentry in the northern provinces of Hamgyeong-do and Pyeongan-do were appeased with by being given titles as officials.

Meritorious Subjects

Those who had made outstanding contributions to subduing internal rebellions or external subversions, thereby ensuring stability of the dynasty, were awarded the titles of meritorious subjects (gongsin). They were given royal edicts and certificates as well as land and slaves.

Royal Messengers

In times of civil disturbances, military mutinies, famine or natural disasters, the king dispatched messengers to examine the situation, resolve problems and comfort the people. Royal messengers also performed clandestine investigations of local officials or public opinion.

Diplomatic emissaries dispatched by the king typically travelled to China and Japan to make or keep peace, or to pursue economic and cultural exchanges.

Compilation of History

During dynastic periods, history was written not only to chronicle events but also to provide lessons from the past and to encourage the king to govern wisely by reflecting on past examples.

During the Goryeo period, histories were compiled by the Office of History (Sagwan) under the supervision of the state and the throne. The annals of the successive monarchs of Joseon were compiled by temporary government agencies named the Office of Annals (Sillokcheong).

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 Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 53

Weaving colorful bamboo basket

From bamboo, a favorite subject in literati ink paintings, can be made numerous utilitarian objects, from baskets, conical rain hats, and quivers to boxes, pillows, and furniture.

Baskets are mainly made of four kinds of material: wicker, bamboo, rushes, and wood. Wicker baskets made of bush clover and thin willow branches have widely been used, together with bamboo baskets. The northern part of Korea made more wicker baskets and the southern part more bamboo baskets. Today, Damyang, the bam- boo-curtained land and the showcase of bamboo craftsmanship in Korea, features a variety of bam- boo specialties in its open-air markets held on days of the month whose numbers end in two or seven. Many houses of the bamboo-curtained terrain quietly engage in bamboo craftsmanship.

Bamboo baskets woven with bamboo strips dyed in natural colors are called chaesang. They require detailed plans and more dexterous crafts- man ship than wicker baskets or wooden boxes.

The first of its kind was found in the Dahori Tomb of the 2nd century B. C. Another one, discovered in the Chaehyeop-chong Tomb, was lacquered and had some painted patterns. As bamboo is easier to process than wood, woven bamboo furniture has been used from early human history. Imwon Gyeongjeji (Book of Forestry Economy) states that Furniture developed from bamboo basketry.

Colorful bamboo baskets were one of the articles most coveted by women in the royal family and the upper classes. They were used for storing clothes, knickknacks, sewing tools, accessories, treasures, or dried food. They were placed inside or next to dressers and wardrobes, kitchen cabinet, and storage rooms. For their elaborate quality and refined geometrical patterns, they became favored by every class and remained a trousseau item even after the advance of wooden furniture. From the end of the Joseon Dynasty, common people also prepared them for dowries.

Weaving does not take many tools or any kind of machine. Dyed bamboo strips, the artisans nimble fingers, and the pattern are all it takes. The artisan first cuts a bamboo sheath into regular strips. These are soaked in water for a day and then each is trimmed again on the artisans lap until only the outermost sheaths remain. These are dyed in natural colors, red from safflower, yellow from jasmine, blue from the indigo plant, black from the fruit of the buckthorn, and so forth. The artisan holds 10 to 20 weft bamboo threads in one hand and 5 to 10 warp threads in

Meshing the bottom part of a bamboo basket

other hand, because the basic weaving method is rib and oblique randing. This method weaves two raised warps and two lowered wefts to make the first row, then vice versa, and continues alternating in this way. It allows diverse geometrical patterns and variations on them. The basic patterns are repeated all the way. At key points are added felicitous Chinese characters or stripe, cross, swastika, and lightning patterns. But it is not easy expressing floral and other complicated patterns on bamboo objects because of the stiffness of bamboo. The inside of the woven box is papered to protect the contents and the four corners and rims of both the inner box and the outer lid are covered with silk cloth to protect them from damage. Such boxes are usually in sets of three, five, or other odd numbers. Sets of three are predominant. Each woven bamboo box consists of an inner box and an outer lid which is as deep as the inner box. A large one may be two to three feet wide and one foot deep, a small one just a few inches wide.

The flood of plastic baskets and boxes accompanying industrialization threatens to wash away bamboo boxes and baskets.  The chain of bamboo basketry craftsmanship was once close to breaking. But fortunately it has enjoyed government patronage and lovers of traditional objects have kept on buying bamboo baskets as gifts for special occasions.

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 Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 32 

Installing two warp threads in the reed

The use of bast fiber from hemp in Korea traces back to the mists of the prehistoric age. The earliest examples of hemp fiber were found together with bone needles from the shell mound of the Gungsan area, dating back to the Neolithic. Rougher than ramie, but light, airy, and very durable, hemp clothes were perfect for the humid and hot summer months, especially for lower-class people in the traditional society.

Hemp clothing seems to have been made since the Three Kingdoms era, but ramie cloth-ing was not widespread until the Goryeo period. Historical texts dating from Song Dynasty China tell of the good quality of Goryeo ramie and hemp products, which were highly respected in neighboring countries. In the late 13th century ramie was sent as tribute to the Chinese court. Along with ramie, hemp was in such high demand to pay state taxes or womens dowries that the government had to put limits on its use during the final years of the Goryeo Dynasty.

To grow hemp, farmers first plow a field several times during the cold slack season from November to January to soften the soil and to kill insects. In early April hemp seeds are planted at 3cm intervals in straight rows about 10-15cm apart. The distance of the intervals and between rows determines the quality of the hemp. Narrower distances will produce finer quality, but wider distances will produce a greater quantity. The hemp seeds sprout about ten days later. They grow straight up to 2-2.5m and are harvested around the beginning of the summer heat in early July. Choosing sunny days for harvesting has an important influence on the quality of the hemp. Also, earlier harvesting gives finer quality but lesser quantity, and later harvesting vice versa. Hemp for seeding the following year is harvested in late October or November, when the seeds are completely ripe.

After the leaves and branches have been trimmed off, the hemp stems are gathered together in bundles 30-40cm thick and soaked in water for from three to seven days to help strip off the bast fiber. Longer soaking would harm the quality. Steaming for about five hours allows better stripping. The steamed fiber is left overnight, then stripped and dried.

The process of making hemp fabric starts with stripping the bark from the hemp stems. The dried strips are watered and softened by pressing them with stones. They are then sorted out into soft and thin, normal, or coarse and hard strips and dried for one day under the sun. If there happens to be a spell of cloudy or rainy weather, they can decay.

The dried strips are watered again to split them with a handsaw into thinner strands, which are twined end to end to make longer yarns. Just as for ramie, hemp, or silk weaving, a hand loom is used for traditional hemp weaving in a plain weave, and the process is also the same, except for the threading method. Before the weaving, the warp threads are also starched. For the details of this process, please refer to the chapter on Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 14, ramie weaving in the Hansan area. Inserting the warp threads through the gaps between the teeth of a reed is also the same as with ramie or cotton.

A skillful weaver can produce 25 yards of loose fabric in as little as a day and of a fabric of extremely delicate quality in about four days.

The completed hemp fabric is soaked for three to five days in water which has been used to wash rice. It is rinsed, washed again in lye, and sun dried. Starching, fulling, and ironing hemp clothes gives them a pleasant shine and a stiff texture with better porosity for the summer. In Korea the best quality of hemp cloth has been produced in Gokseong County in Jeollanam-do Province and Andong County in Gyeongsangbuk-do Province. Today designers restyle traditional dresses into modern fashions using natural bast fabrics.

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Old Maps of Korea

Map of Mujang prefecture Jeolla-do

The history of map making in Korea dates back to the Three Kingdoms period. Maps were used not only to understand the topography but as sources of information for governance. Ancient maps, legacies of Korea’s illustrious cartographic tradition, constitute a valuable cultural heritage representing the world views of people at the time they were made.

Old Korean Maps

Ancient geographical records consist of two categories: maps and geographical literature. Maps provide the topographical features as well as manmade facilities of specific regions while geo-graphical writings are necessary for reviewing their institutions through various historical periods. The two earliest sources of cartographic information are History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk-sagi) and History of Goryeo (Goryeosa). Both sources say that maps were made and actively used from the Three Kingdoms to Goryeo period. Joseon inherited the long map making tradition and produced a prominent world map, entitled “Integrated Map of Historical Capitals” (Honil gangni yeokdae gukdo jido), in 1402, the second year of King Taejong.

Map making technology made remarkable advances during the Joseon Dynasty. The government as well as private cartographers produced maps of diverse kinds, including national maps, provincial maps, maps of the capital city and provinces, world maps and maps of foreign countries, military maps and travel maps.

Maps of the World

World maps of the Joseon period, reflecting the Koreans’ changing views of the world at the time they were made, had three outstanding characteristics.

First, Korea was shown larger than its relative size compared with neighboring countries, as typified by the “Integrated Map of Historical Capitals,” made in 1402. It was a trend derived from the Korean people’s proud notion of their country. The map, however, is noteworthy in that it presents Arabia, Europe and Africa, all the continents known to Koreans at the time China and Korea are presented in remarkable detail.

Second, world maps based on the Sinocentric view of the world were widely used around the 17th century. These maps, unique to Korea, were called “circular world map” (wonhyeong cheonhado). They have a continent at the center surrounded by imaginary seas and islands, along with real geographical names. Maps of this type were influenced by the Classic of the Mountains and Seas (Sanhaegyeong, or Shanhaijing in Chinese), a largely fabulous geographical and cultural account of China some 2,000 years ago.

Third, European-style world maps depicting the world as a spherical globe, introduced from China

in the 17th century, were a major catalyst for the Koreans’ changing perception of the world.

Maps of Korea

The Joseon government undertook active cartographic projects from its early years. Thus, maps of Korea containing geographical information necessary for government were produced.

Except for the Amnokgang (Yalu) and Dumangang (Tumen) rivers on the northern borders, the “Integrated Map of Historical Capitals” of 1402 differs little in its presentation of waterways, mountain ranges and coastlines from the maps of later years. These presentations became even more precise in the “Map of Korean Territory” (Joseon bangyeok jido), made around 1557, the 12th year of King Myeongjong, owing to scientific achievements during the reign of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450).

In the mid-18th century, geographer Jeong Sang-gi (1678-1752) under the reign of King Yeongjo produced a map that more precisely defined the northern borders. He improved the cartographic accuracy by devising a kind of scale, called baengnicheok, based on squares of 100 ri, approximately 40 kilometers.

Jeong made a map of Korea with his son, Hang-ryeong. Their map was considered to be superior to government-made maps. With transportation routes presented in red lines and employing various cartographic symbols, the map contained far more information than most earlier maps and later influenced Kim Jeong-ho (circa 1804-1866) in his lifelong mapmaking work. Kim’s magnum opus, “Detail Map of Korea” (Daedongnyeojido), completed in 1861, marked the culmination of Korea’s long cartographic tradition.

“Detail Map of Korea” divided the Korean Peninsula into 22 horizontal sections of 120 ri from north to south and 80 ri from east to west. Each section was designed to be folded into an easily carried album. The 22 albums made a map measuring 6.7 meters by 3.8 meters, presenting all waterways and mountains in impressive detail as well as rich geographical information by using varied signs. Transportation routes were marked with dots at every 10 ri.

“Detail Map of Korea” shows a high standard of cartographic skills, comparable to any map produced with modern technology. It is also worthy of note that the map was designed to be printed from woodblocks for broader distribution of geographical knowledge.

Maps of Seoul

Maps of the capital were produced during the Joseon period under an assortment of names, including Hanyang, Gyeongdo, Gyeongseong, Suseon and Doseong. The latter two simply mean the “capital city.” The most commonly used name was “Map of the Capital City” (Doseongdo). Maps of the capital symbolically emphasized the authority of the throne while serving practical needs. The capital was beautifully depicted using painting techniques, with the names of palaces, government offices, roads and streams, and administrative districts precisely recorded.

As the growing population spilled beyond the capital’s walls in the 18th century, comprehensive maps such as “Map of Five Districts of the Capital City” (Gyeongjo obu do) became necessary. Woodblock print editions like “Complete Map of the Capital City” (Suseonjeondo) were also published to meet the rising demand for maps of the capital.

Maps of Local Communities

Maps of local administrative districts were produced to ensure effective local governance. Joseon started making maps of individual local administrative districts during its early years but most of the extant maps were produced after the 18th century.

The maps presented local communities, from cities to counties, prefectures and townships, called bu, mok, gun or hyeon. They typically showed the governor’s office and other government and public facilities at the center, as well as town walls and transportation routes , that were surrounded by mountains and rivers stretching to the peripheral areas, all clearly identified by name. These maps were useful for understanding the social and economic conditions of each local com-munity. They were generally characterized by painterly beauty.

Military Maps

Military map of the Yalu river border

Maps of the key strategic points of defense along inland and coastal borderlines were produced in the process of installing military facilities as demanded by the topographical features of national territory.

The maps of the Four Outposts and Six Garrison Forts along the Amnokgang (Yalu) and Dumangang (Tumen) river borders with China were the earliest types of these “borderland maps” (gwanbang jido) of the Joseon period. Various military maps were actively made after the two major wars – the Japanese invasions in 1592-1598 and the Manchu invasions in 1636-1637. “Map of Fortifications on Northern Qing Borders” (Cheong bukbyeonseong do) and “Map of Yalu River Border” (Amnok-gang byeongyedo) were among the outstanding military maps produced during these years.

Maps of mountain fortresses and coastal defense lines were other types of military maps actively made at the time. They included maps of the Jeongbangsanseong Fortress in Hwanghae-do Province and those of Bukhansanseong Fortress and Namhansanseong Fortress, both defense strong-holds protecting the capital city. Maps for maritime defense presented naval bases along with sea routes.

Other Maps

Maps for specific uses were made under Joseon as frequently as nowadays. There were maps of royal palaces (gunggwol do), government offices (gwana do), Buddhist temples (sachal do), and famous mountains (myeongsan do). Also, genealogical re-cords of individual families often contained maps of ancestral tombs (san do).

As traveling grew increasingly frequent among the people in late Joseon, small portable maps designed to be carried inside sleeves were widely distributed. These maps contained useful information for travelers, such as distance marks and geographical and other basic knowledge about each district.

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Korean Documents

Joseon red Cerfiicate

Ancient Koreans used an array of documents. Government offices used official and non-official documents, and public officials received various letters of appointment. Proper papers were also necessary for transactions concerning rice paddies and homes, lawsuits and appeals, and property inheritance.

Documents related to Official Career

The Joseon Dynasty recruited most of its public officials through state examinations. Public officials received various letters of appointment at different stages of their career.

Those who passed the lower civil service examinations, called the classics licentiate examination (saengwon gwa) and the literary licentiate examination (Jinsa gwa), received white certificates (baekpae) from the king. These initial permits to join the bureaucracy were thus named because they were written on white paper.

The king awarded red certificates (hongpae) to those who passed the higher erudite examination (mun gwa). Thirty-three officials were recruited through each examination. The candidate placed first was appointed to a higher post than the others.

Green certificates (nokpae), awarded to officials four times a year, were salary checks for grain distribution. Appointments, promotions and commendations were granted in the form of royal orders and instructions.

Transaction Documents

Transactions concerning the sale and purchase of farm lands, paddies and homes were conducted in similar manner as today. One outstanding difference is that slaves were also bought and sold in pre-modern times.

Transaction documents typically clarified the date of transaction, a detailed description of the item concerned, the price, and the names of the seller and buyer, one or two witnesses and the person who wrote the document.

Lawsuit Documents

Joseon court Petiton

Bringing complaints to court was traditionally regarded as an undesirable act that always needed be avoided and guarded against. Hence the old saying, “A lawsuit is the road to ruin.” But law-suits were as much part of people’s lives in ancient times as they are nowadays. And preparing documents for legal proceedings was as complicated then as now. There were agents representing plaintiffs, called oejibu, meaning “outside counsel,” but the government defined them as “deceitful manipulators of law” and strictly banned their activity.

Registration Documents

Similar to today’s registration system, property transactions under Joseon had to be reported to authorities within 100 days for issuance of legal certificates. The system helped prevent possible conflicts surrounding property transactions and ownership.

Personal Signatures

It was customary to sign or seal documents as an act of guaranteeing the authenticity or lawfulness of their content.

There were two kinds of signatures. The most common type simply had a person’s name. The other type was artfully designed with additional characters.

All literate people, regardless of their social status, could use signatures. Illiterate people used finger or palm prints. Seals were of two kinds: official seals and private seals.

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Inscriptions

rubbing of tomb stele king-gwanggaeto

Inscriptions on stone and metal provide vital information for the study of history. They are valuable guides to social and political institutions as well as spiritual culture and the arts, all important areas of historical sciences. In this regard, the study of inscriptions, or epigraphy, greatly contributes to the elucidation of historical facts by resolving puzzles arising from a lack of literary sources.

Epitaphs on Metal and Stone

The science of epigraphy concerns texts inscribed on metal and stone. Metal inscriptions include those on iron or bronze objects such as bells, Buddhist images, swords, incense burners, flag pole supports, vessels, spoons, seals and stamps. Stone inscriptions are represented by steles, epitaphs from tombs and various stone carvings. In a broader sense, epigraphy also involves inscriptions on pottery, bricks and roof tiles, wood slips, brush-written inscriptions and texts written on fabrics like silk and hemp.

Steles

Steles refer to wood, stone or metal slabs with inscriptions for commemorative purposes. Most steles in Korea are made of stone. Depending on their content, they are classified into pagoda steles, tomb steles, tomb yard monuments for distinguished government officials, steles celebrating victories over foreign invaders, and so on. These are all valuable for studying historical events as well as calligraphy and sculptural skills of their time.

Among the earliest extant examples are the tomb stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo, the stele commemorating an inspection tour of King Jinheung of Silla on Mt. Bukhansan, and the stele of Sataek Jijeok, a nobleman of Baekje. Under the influence of Seon (Zen) Buddhism, numerous stupa steles were erected in honor of high monks from the late Silla through Goryeo periods. A great number of monuments for prominent officials, tombstones and steles honoring filial sons or virtuous wives were erected during Joseon, all related to the predominant Confucian moral values. Thus steles varied in style, reflecting the changing values and streams of culture.

Rubbings

Rubbings of stone or metal inscriptions are a useful means of studying and preserving texts or designs before objects are destroyed or deteriorate over time, or when they are difficult to access. The most widely used method is done by applying a sheet of dampened paper to the surface of an inscription, brushing it so that it adheres closely to the stone. Then dabbing with a cotton pad moistened with a little ink, the ink is transferred only to the raised parts of the surface, leaving the engraved text to appear in white against a grey background. Rubbings are useful for deciphering and conserving the text as well as studying calligraphy styles and decorative patterns. They are even more valuable when the original inscriptions are inaccessible or lost as in cases of the stele of King Gwanggaeto, the tablet marking the Korean-Chinese border on Mt. Baekdusan, or the monument for Seon Master Sinhaeng at Dansoksa Temple.

Epitaphs from Tombs

Epitaph tablets carved with the name of the deceased and a brief biography were placed in tombs. The tablets, usually made of stone, pottery or wood, began to be used in China during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) and were very popular for many centuries during Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and through Sui and Tang. Koreans also identified tomb occupants in similar ways during the Three Kingdoms period, as shown by the brush-written inscriptions in Anak Tu-mulus No. 3 and another Goguryeo tomb at Deokheung-ri as well as the Tomb of King Muryeong of Baekje.

Epitaph tablets from the Goryeo period have far more detailed information about the deceased, including their family lineages, public careers, social activities, marriage and children, as well as messages of condolence. This information was sometimes inscribed on a stone coffin but generally on pieces of slate. Epitaph tablets under Joseon were made from more diverse materials such as buncheong, or slip-covered stoneware, porcelain or brick, and became smaller. Some were made in circular or cylindrical forms or in the shape of a bowl.

Epitaph tablets were usually written by acquaintances skilled in composition. Mostly eulogizing the deceased, these texts are valuable sources of historical information. Particularly, epitaph tab-lets of the Goryeo period carry significant clues to the political and social condition and spiritual culture in medieval Korea.

Other Inscriptions

Joseon roof end tile inscription

Texts inscribed on wood slips, pottery vessels, roof tiles and bricks are mostly short phrases or a few words containing fragmentary information. But they give vital glimpses of the social condition, religious faith or literary life of who produced or used the objects. Wood slips are more durable than paper, convenient to use and preserve, and even to re-use. Among excavated wood slips are many labels, proving their outstanding durability. Wood slips were also used as memo pads, for recording scriptures and ritual purposes, or for scribbling.

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